International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge,
Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD)
Central
and West Asia and
Summary
for Decision Makers
Authors: Alia Gana (
Statement
by Governments
All countries present at the final intergovernmental plenary
session held in
All countries see these Reports as a valuable and important contribution to our understanding on agricultural knowledge, science and technology for development recognizing the need to further deepen our understanding of the challenges ahead. This Assessment is a constructive initiative and important contribution that all governments need to take forward to ensure that agricultural knowledge, science and technology fulfills its potential to meet the development and sustainability goals of the reduction of hunger and poverty, the improvement of rural livelihoods and human health, and facilitating equitable, socially, environmentally and economically sustainable development.
In accordance with the above statement, the following
governments approve the Central and
Azerbaijan, Bahrain,
Background
In August 2002, the World Bank and the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations initiated a global consultative
process to determine whether an international assessment of agricultural
knowledge, science and technology (AKST) was needed. This was stimulated by
discussions at the World Bank with the private sector and nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs) on the state of scientific understanding of biotechnology
and more specifically transgenics. During 2003, eleven consultations were held,
overseen by an international multistakeholder steering committee and involving
over 800 participants from all relevant stakeholder groups, e.g., governments,
the private sector and civil society. Based on these consultations the steering
committee recommended to an Intergovernmental Plenary meeting in Nairobi in September
2004 that an international assessment of the role of agricultural knowledge,
science and technology (AKST) in reducing hunger and poverty, improving rural
livelihoods and facilitating environmentally, socially and economically
sustainable development was needed. The
concept of an International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology
for Development (IAASTD) was endorsed as a multi-thematic, multi-spatial,
multi-temporal intergovernmental process with a multistakeholder Bureau
cosponsored by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Bank and
World Health Organization (WHO).
The IAASTD’s governance structure is a unique hybrid of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the nongovernmental Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). The stakeholder composition of the Bureau was agreed at the Intergovernmental Plenary meeting in Nairobi; it is geographically balanced and multistakeholder with 30 government and 30 civil society representatives (NGOs, producer and consumer groups, private sector entities and international organizations) in order to ensure ownership of the process and findings by a range of stakeholders.
About 400 of the world’s experts were selected by the Bureau, following nominations by stakeholder groups, to prepare the IAASTD Report (comprised of a Global and 5 sub-Global assessments). These experts worked in their own capacity and did not represent any particular stakeholder group. Additional individuals, organizations and governments were involved in the peer review process.
The IAASTD development and sustainability goals were endorsed at the first Intergovernmental Plenary and are consistent with a subset of the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): the reduction of hunger and poverty, the improvement of rural livelihoods and human health, and facilitating equitable, socially, environmentally and economically sustainable development. Realizing these goals requires acknowledging the multifunctionality of agriculture: the challenge is to simultaneously meet development and sustainability goals while increasing agricultural production.
Meeting these goals has to be placed in the context of a rapidly changing world of urbanization, growing inequities, human migration, globalization, changing dietary preferences, climate change, environmental degradation, a trend toward biofuels and an increasing population. These conditions are affecting local and global food security and putting pressure on productive capacity and ecosystems. Hence there are unprecedented challenges ahead in providing food within a global trading system where there are other competing uses of agricultural and other natural resources. AKST alone cannot solve these problems, which are caused by complex political and social dynamics; but it can make a major contribution to meeting development and sustainability goals. Never before has it been more important for the world to generate and use AKST.
Given the focus on hunger, poverty and livelihoods, the
IAASTD pays special attention to the current situation, issues and potential
opportunities to redirect the current AKST system to improve the situation for
poor rural people, especially small-scale farmers, rural laborers and others
with limited resources. It addresses issues critical to formulating policy and
provides information for decision makers confronting conflicting views on
contentious issues such as the environmental consequences of productivity
increases, environmental and human health impacts of transgenic crops, the
consequences of bioenergy development on the environment and on the long-term
availability and price of food, and the implications of climate change on
agricultural production. The Bureau agreed that the scope of the assessment
needed to go beyond the narrow confines of S&T and should encompass other
types of relevant knowledge (e.g., knowledge held by agricultural producers,
consumers and end users) and that it should also assess the role of
institutions, organizations, governance, markets and trade.
The IAASTD is a multidisciplinary and multistakeholder enterprise
requiring the use and integration of information, tools and models from
different knowledge paradigms including local and traditional knowledge. The IAASTD does not advocate
specific policies or practices; it assesses the major issues facing AKST and
points towards a range of AKST options for action that meet development and
sustainability goals. It is policy relevant, but not policy prescriptive. It
integrates scientific information on a range of topics that are critically
interlinked, but often addressed independently, i.e., agriculture, poverty,
hunger, human health, natural resources, environment, development and
innovation. It will enable decision makers to bring a richer base of knowledge
to bear on policy and management decisions on issues previously viewed in
isolation. Knowledge gained from historical analysis (typically the past 50
years) and an analysis of some future development alternatives to 2050 form the
basis for assessing options for action on science and technology, capacity
development, institutions and policies, and investments.
The IAASTD is conducted according to an open, transparent, representative and legitimate process; is evidence-based; presents options rather than recommendations; assesses different local, regional and global perspectives; presents different views, acknowledging that there can be more than one interpretation of the same evidence based on different world views; and identifies the key scientific uncertainties and areas on which research could be focused to advance development and sustainability goals.
The IAASTD is composed of a Global assessment and five sub-Global assessments: Central and West Asia and North Africa - CWANA; East and South Asia and the Pacific - ESAP; Latin America and the Caribbean - LAC; North America and Europe - NAE; sub-Saharan Africa – SSA. It (i) assesses the generation, access, dissemination and use of public and private sector AKST in relation to the goals, using local, traditional and formal knowledge; (ii) analyzes existing and emerging technologies, practices, policies and institutions and their impact on the goals; (iii) provides information for decision makers in different civil society, private and public organizations on options for improving policies, practices, institutional and organizational arrangements to enable AKST to meet the goals; (iv) brings together a range of stakeholders (consumers, governments, international agencies and research organizations, NGOs, private sector, producers, the scientific community) involved in the agricultural sector and rural development to share their experiences, views, understanding and vision for the future; and (v) identifies options for future public and private investments in AKST. In addition, the IAASTD will enhance local and regional capacity to design, implement and utilize similar assessments.
In this assessment agriculture is used in the widest sense to include production of food, feed, fuel, fiber and other products and to include all sectors from production of inputs (e.g., seeds and fertilizer) to consumption of products. However, as in all assessments, some topics were covered less extensively than others (e.g., livestock, forestry, fisheries and agricultural engineering), largely due to the expertise of the selected authors.
The IAASTD draft Report was subjected to two rounds of peer review by governments, organizations and individuals. These drafts were placed on an open access web site and open to comments by anyone. The authors revised the drafts based on numerous peer review comments, with the assistance of review editors who were responsible for ensuring the comments were appropriately taken into account. One of the most difficult issues authors had to address was criticisms that the report was too negative. In a scientific review based on empirical evidence, this is always a difficult comment to handle, as criteria are needed in order to say whether something is negative or positive. Another difficulty was responding to the conflicting views expressed by reviewers. The difference in views was not surprising given the range of stakeholder interests and perspectives. Thus one of the key findings of the IAASTD is that there are diverse and conflicting interpretations of past and current events, which need to be acknowledged and respected.
The Global and sub-Global Summaries for Decision Makers and
the Executive Summary of the Synthesis Report were approved at an
Intergovernmental Plenary in
The IAASTD builds on and adds value to a number of recent assessments and reports that have provided valuable information relevant to the agricultural sector, but have not specifically focused on the future role of AKST, the institutional dimensions and the multifunctionality of agriculture. These include: FAO State of Food Insecurity in the World (yearly); InterAcademy Council Report: Realizing the Promise and Potential of African Agriculture (2004); UN Millennium Project Task Force on Hunger (2005); Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005); CGIAR Science Council Strategy and Priority Setting Exercise (2006); Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture: Guiding Policy Investments in Water, Food, Livelihoods and Environment (2007); Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Reports (2001 and 2007); UNEP Fourth Global Environmental Outlook (2007); World Bank World Development Report: Agriculture for Development (2007); IFPRI Global Hunger Indices (yearly); and World Bank Internal Report of Investments in SSA (2007).
Financial support was provided to the IAASTD by the
cosponsoring agencies, the governments of
The Global and sub-Global Summaries for Decision Makers and the Synthesis Report are written for a range of stakeholders, i.e., government policy makers, private sector, NGOs, producer and consumer groups, international organizations and the scientific community. There are no recommendations, only options for action. The options for action are not prioritized because different options are actionable by different stakeholders, each of whom have a different set of priorities and responsibilities and operate in different socio-economic-political circumstances.
Central
and West Asia and
Summary
for Decision Makers
The CWANA
(Central and West Asia,
Natural resources and biodiversity. About 85% of CWANA is dry, with high rainfall variability accompanied by frequent droughts. Most of the world’s deserts are in this region. About half of the internal renewable water resources are below the threshold of 500 m3 per inhabitant per year—considered as a minimum for development to take place (Figure CWANA-SDM-1). Agriculture is using more than 70% of all available fresh water, and inefficient use makes scarcity worse. Agriculture is also the main source of water pollution, with pesticides and nutrients draining into groundwater, waterways, wetlands and coastal waters. [Ch 2]
Insert Figure CWANA-SDM- 1. Internal
renewable water resources in CWANA countries
Most renewable groundwater resources in CWANA
are already exploited and in some cases overexploited, thus deteriorating water
quality. The region has a large reservoir of fossil groundwater that some
countries have started using without any formal agreements among basin-sharing
countries. Although most water resources are transboundary, cooperation is weak
among riparian countries for jointly managing the shared resources, with the
exception of the Nile and the
Because soil management is poor, large areas of
agricultural land are degraded by wind and water erosion, nutrient depletion
and soil salinization. Poor land
use planning, continuing population growth and urbanization have all
contributed to a progressive loss of agricultural land in most CWANA countries. However, many have
implemented large-scale land reclamation projects, such as in areas adjacent to the Nile Delta in
Historically
one of the world’s most important centers for the origin of domesticated
agriculture, CWANA is rich in unique biodiversity of animal and crop species
and of medicinal plants. However, extended use of imported species and weak
preservation policies are causing local genetic resources to disappear rapidly.
[Ch 2]
CWANA holds some
of the largest oil and gas reserves in the world, which makes the region
attractive to international interests and interventions. The area also suffers
from major international conflicts [Ch 1].
Weak governance and poor human rights conditions
have sparked ethnic wars in many CWANA countries. Relief and emergency interventions are widespread,
especially in conflict zones.
Human development and social
conditions. While
increased access to education has led to major progress in some countries, access
has remained limited in a large part of the region, because of poverty, lack of
school infrastructure and type of livelihood, such as nomadic life and
children’s participation in farm work. In rural areas, the rate of illiteracy
remains high, especially among women (for example, 80% in
Active demographic policies have reduced population growth rates in some CWANA countries. However, these rates remain high in many others and are associated with high rates of unemployment. Despite important economic and social progress achieved in a number of countries, more than 40% of the people in the region live on less than US$1 a day, especially in rural areas, which contributes to increased outmigration. In addition, the uneven distribution of wealth and economic growth contributes to a shrinking middle class within most countries. [Ch 1]
Food and nutrition.
CWANA countries vary significantly in per capita income and living standards.
Overall progress has been significant in raising food consumption in
kilocalories per person per day, thus improving the nutritional status of the
population. However, hunger and malnutrition still prevail in some countries,
particularly in rural areas and poverty belts. [Ch 2]
Animal
products and cereals are the major sources of protein. Reflecting increased feed
costs, the price of animal products has increased significantly, reducing their
affordability. Dietary intake increasingly consists of legumes for protein and
plant carbohydrates for calories in general. Nonetheless in
some countries the demand for diverse agricultural commodities is increasing. [Ch 1]
Agricultural production and market integration.
Occupying over 35% of total cultivated land in CWANA, cereals are the region’s
most important crops. Despite an increase in cereal production from 0.51 tonnes
ha–1 in 1961 (excluding the countries of the Central Asia
and Caucasus subregion) to about 1.73 tonnes ha–1 in 2005, yield increases
in rainfed agriculture have generally remained less than the world average and
the gap will probably widen in the near future as more marginal lands are
cultivated. [Ch 2]
Only countries in the subregion of South Asia and West Asia
have stabilized per capita production volumes; countries in the subregions of
the
In contrast CWANA
countries have achieved important progress in irrigated agriculture, reflected
in increased production and yields. The
production of vegetables has increased from about 20 tonnes ha–1 in
the 1960s to 96 tonnes ha–1 in 2005, which represents 11% of world
vegetable production, mainly concentrated in Southwest Asia (6% of world
production) and the
Most CWANA countries are net importers
of food, especially of cereals (Figure CWANA-SDM-2). Arab countries alone
import US$20 billion in food. In 2004 agricultural imports in CWANA countries
reached US$41.8 billion, while agricultural exports, mainly fruits, vegetables,
dates and olive oil, did not exceed US$17 billion. The cost of attaining food
security through imports is rising rapidly in relationship with increase in food
prices. [Ch 1]
Insert Figure CWANA-SDM- 2.
Agricultural exports and imports for CWANA subregions.
Farm structures and
production systems. Existing land-tenure systems and farm structures in the
CWANA region result from a combination of factors, including traditional land
rights and customary law, colonial legacies and national policies. More
recently, two major trends have characterized changes in farm structure in most
of the region. On one hand, a higher degree of concentration of farmland is
observed as a result of privatization, liberalization and economic hardship; but
other farmland has become increasingly fragmented, mostly because of
inheritance and demographic growth, leading to reduced economic viability of
family farms and unsound land management. [Ch 2]
The
large-scale farming system model based on high investment, monocropping and
export-oriented production is consolidating at the expense of the small-scale
diversified system. In the face of economic globalization and market
liberalization, small-scale farmers in CWANA are becoming less competitive due
to reduced subsidies, unfavorable prices, low productivity, lack of technical
and marketing information, and adverse environmental conditions [Ch 1, 2]. In CWANA the low level of investment in agriculture is closely associated
with low labor productivity (value added per worker) (Figure CWANA-SDM-3).
Insert Figure CWANA-SDM-3. Capital stock in agriculture and
agriculture value added per worker in groups of CWANA countries.
Agricultural
employment and women’s labor. In recent years employment dynamics in the
agricultural sector in most CWANA countries have been characterized by two
major trends: 1) a significant decline in the share of the total active
population engaged in agriculture, decreasing from an average of over
two-thirds in the 1960s to less than one-third in several countries; and 2) the
increasing participation of women in agricultural production. [Ch 2]
Despite their major and increasing
contribution to agricultural production and rural livelihoods, women’s
activities have remained unacknowledged, under-recorded and undervalued, their identified
roles mainly restricted to unpaid family labor and to cheap, seasonal wage
labor. Because of the high illiteracy rate of rural women in some countries,
agricultural extension has continued to target mainly male heads of household.
Agricultural development programs have frequently failed to integrate women’s
needs and priorities or gender equity objectives, instead they frequently increase
workloads for women by promoting the development of labor-intensive farming
systems, such as intensive animal production and irrigated farming. [Ch 2]
Social and
environmental costs of agricultural development. Technical models of
agricultural modernization have resulted in major social and environmental
costs in most CWANA countries. They have not only marginalized household-based
farming systems but have also contributed to reducing employment opportunities,
developing part-time farming, and increasing rural outmigration in most countries.
Seasonal migration both between and within countries is common. In the Arabian
Peninsula,
Yet in absolute terms the rural population has dramatically
increased due to persistently high population growth, thus amplifying pressure
on both the labor market and natural resources. Food
insecurity, exacerbated by drought, climate change and unemployment, will
further intensify migration pressures in the future. [Ch 2]
Prevailing agricultural development models have led
to pollution as well as contributed to growing health risks for both farmers
and consumers. They have led to the overexploitation of land and water
resources resulting in soil erosion, salinization, degraded rangelands, loss of local agrobiodiversity and conflicts
over the rights to use land and water. [Ch 1, 2]
Institutions. With few exceptions, poorly developed public policies have kept farmers’ associations weak. Thus marketing channels are persistently poorly organized and technical support services are inefficient, presenting major obstacles in efforts to develop the agricultural sector.
Most CWANA countries rank low in all indices of
good governance. Promoting development strategies that are more decentralized
and participatory is hampered by insufficient political will and lack of effort
to build organizational capacity in local communities. However, in some
countries community-based organizations have started playing an important role
in development activities such as household agricultural enterprises, community
forests, water harvesting and environmental protection.
AKST has helped build sound knowledge of natural
resources in most of CWANA and has also helped initiate a green revolution in a
few countries. However, AKST has not always helped avoid degradation of
natural resources (water, soil and biodiversity), alleviate poverty or reduce
social inequity and has frequently overlooked the multiple functions of
agriculture. [Ch 2]
Public research has long focused mainly on crop genetic
improvements, especially for wheat. More recently improved varieties of barley and
grain legumes have been created and are being adopted in several countries (such
as
CWANA is in fact rich in traditional knowledge on
aspects such as water harvesting and animal breeding. In the last decade, a
number of initiatives have been developed to recognize, validate and maintain
traditional knowledge. However, complete coverage is still lacking and the
danger is that this knowledge will be lost if strong action to conserve and
promote it is not taken.
Most agricultural research in CWANA has been
carried out in a hierarchical fashion. Small-scale farmers have rarely been touched
by conventional research programs, especially to adopt innovations. The social
and economic sustainability of agricultural innovations or techniques has not
been handled systematically. However, in some countries (such as
Most recently,
AKST has helped reverse trends that have been degrading water resources by
promoting less exploitative water uses and techniques, identifying water-saving
crops, breeding drought-resistant varieties and developing medium- and
small-sized hydraulic works. However, little research has been carried out on
the social aspects of managing water resources and only recently have
initiatives been undertaken to strengthen the role of farmers’ organizations in
water management. [Ch 2]
Many CWANA countries have limited local expertise
in policy formulation, institutional development and research management. Farming
systems, knowledge systems and their dissemination [Ch 1] are little understood, which becomes an
important constraint in trying to elaborate appropriate policies.
Most investment in agricultural research
and development (R&D) in CWANA is public investment; the contribution of
the private sector remains generally low. Overall, resources allocated to
research in CWANA countries are limited – less than 0.2% of GNP, although 2% is
recommended. Recently, however, some countries such as Qatar, Tunisia and the
United Arab Emirates have made real progress in promoting R&D. Private
sector investment, except in a few countries) is nearly nonexistent. [Ch 1,
2]
A gap exists between the outputs from national and
international agricultural research and their adoption at farm level. The capacity
to transfer technology is weak, dissemination of information is poor and
extension services are ineffective.
Regional dissemination of experience has remained limited, because of
insufficient cooperation within CWANA region. Yet a number of success stories
could be scaled up and applied widely, such as women’s empowerment (rights) in
Tunisia, coping strategies (e.g. water-harvesting systems) in Palestine, agricultural
input packages for small-scale farmers in Egypt and the international winter
wheat improvement program in Kyrgyzstan. [Ch 1]
Agricultural development strategies in CWANA are faced with
major challenges: reducing poverty, securing food self-sufficiency, and gaining
a better position in international markets while protecting the environment, ensuring
good governance and social cohesion.
Adequate food supply
for a growing population. One of the main challenges facing the region is to
ensure a sufficient supply of food for a growing population in the face of
limited and degrading natural resources likely to be worsened by climate
change. Increasing agricultural production while keeping farmers in business
and limiting rural outmigration stands as a major challenge.
Trade and market access for exports, changing market conditions. With the increased pace of trade liberalization and the rise of new standards, agricultural produce is facing increased market problems of access and competition vis-à-vis industrialized countries. Setting up adequate quality, social and environmental standards and instituting national policies on intellectual property rights will be major challenges for the future. [Ch 3]
Climate change and environmental issues. A major challenge for agriculture will be to minimize its negative effects on the environment, such as land and water degradation and pollution. A second challenge will be to conserve endangered plant and animal species that can be of agricultural interest, as loss of biological diversity will adversely affect food production. [Ch 3]
Developments in AKST will have to ensure that
agricultural systems are able to respond to the consequences of climate change,
as these changes will severely affect agriculture (reduced water availability, shortened
growth period, etc.) especially in low-income regions.
Ensuring an adequate supply of irrigation and
drinking water, in the context of growing competition for this vital resource
and more frequent droughts, will be another major challenge in the region over the
next 30 years. Preventing water degradation will also be imperative, as water
quality is increasingly at risk because of heavy withdrawals of groundwater and
pollution from surface sources.
In CWANA, the issue of agriculture producing
bioenergy is controversial and unpredictable, because it has adverse
implications for the sustainability of food production, food security and natural
resources (i.e. water, land, biodiversity). A major regional challenge is to
make countries aware of what bioenergy or biofuel production puts at stake and
to put in place policies to protect the food production function of agriculture.
[Ch 3]
The hazards of pollution and how it adversely affects
on human health are results of the expansion of intensive agriculture and the
concurrent increase in the use of agrochemicals. A major task is to increase
awareness of these hazards and hasten adoption of integrated pest and disease management.
[Ch 3]
Plant breeding for resistance to
biotic and abiotic stress presents a major challenge. Traditional breeding
together with biotechnology should contribute to addressing this challenge. Genetically
modified organisms are expected to gain greater attention and be subject to
debate involving broader segments of society. The effects on human health,
biodiversity and rural societies will have to be analyzed, taking into account
what has occurred in other countries, to adopt adequate measures to handle the biosafety
issues by developing and implementing national regulatory frameworks in the
light of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. [Ch 3]
Women in agriculture. Despite their substantial role in
agriculture, women continue to have limited ownership and control over resources
such as land, labor, credit and capital. Empowering women by providing enabling
environments through policy, regulatory and legislative interventions for
enhanced access to opportunities (e.g. education, access to natural and
economic resources and technologies, enterprise development, participation in
decision-making) will be a major condition for increasing agricultural
productivity. Central to the formulation of future policies is the need to
address the social sustainability issues related to women’s labor conditions
(e.g. safety, drudgery, excessively low wages). [Ch 3]
Policies and governance. Policies for managing agricultural risk in CWANA have consisted mainly in implementing emergency measures, especially to cope with the consequences of drought and epidemiological situations, and of programs aimed at improving farm production techniques. However, what most countries of the region need is to design and implement a comprehensive and proactive risk management policy.
One response to the multiple challenges of
globalization, food insecurity, hunger, poverty, low agricultural productivity
and endangered socioeconomic and environmental sustainability in the region is
to use AKST effectively. While adjusting to the requirements of economically,
socially and environmentally sustainable development, the CWANA agricultural
research portfolio should not lose its focus on the existing conventional
agenda; extension should be activated toward achieving the above objectives.
Given the various AKST options available to deal with the challenges facing CWANA, it becomes extremely important to keep in mind some of the requirements without which AKST may not achieve development and sustainability goals effectively.
Governance. To ensure that the generation and application
of AKST is truly geared toward development and sustainability goals, CWANA countries
will have to provide transparent and participatory mechanisms to develop
relevant policies and implementation mechanisms that follow the principles of
good governance. To make AKST work for CWANA’s people, changes must be made from
business as usual. [Ch 4]
Investment. A
substantial increase in investments in
human and financial capital is urgently needed to address the identified challenges
through AKST in the region, (i.e. a minimum of 1% of GDP, as recommended in the
2006 Khartoum Summit of Heads of State). Agricultural productivity improvements
and natural resource preservation will depend on focused public and private investments
in AKST to contribute to poverty alleviation, food security, environmental
sustainability and economic progress. While there is a serious need for
private–public and inter-regional partnerships, it is also important to ensure
that the various sources of funding do not stop national agricultural research
systems in the region from focusing on national agricultural priorities. [Ch 4]
Compliance with food
safety and quality assurance. Compliance
with standards has been relatively slow in CWANA countries and has mostly been in
response to requirements of importing countries and the need to maintain
traditional export markets. People’s sensitization and strict enforcement of legislation
are major conditions for assuring food safety and adopting new standards. In
addition to preparing to meet these international standards, developing
intra-CWANA standards is crucially important. [Ch 4]
Coordination and
policy coherence. Promoting participatory and culturally sensitive and
multidisciplinary approaches involving all stakeholders (including regional
institutions) is a key element in fostering AKST systems locally, nationally
and regionally. AKST effectiveness within institutions will increase with
better interaction among and within various government ministries (e.g.
agriculture, food, livestock, marketing, commerce, finance, education),
departments, academia, research, extension, the private sector, producer and
grower associations, civil society organizations and the media. Without an
integrated and cohesive approach, it will be difficult for CWANA to reap the
true benefits of AKST. [Ch 4]
Policy options. Investment
in support of agriculture in general is needed, and particularly capital for
small-scale farms. Governments should set up regional, national and local
mechanisms (long-term credit, incentives, etc.) to give farmers access to
capital to buy tools and equipment and to better manage soil fertility and
natural resources (water, land and biodiversity)—the final objective being to
increase labor productivity and agricultural profitability.
In the face of globalization and increased market liberalization, agriculture in CWANA countries should be protected. Governments should set up mechanisms to support their agriculture as well as their farmers—border tariffs for staple products, or controlled prices for local staple products. Intellectual property rights for local niche products should be secured. A policy option could aim at increasing agricultural production and setting up local marketing arrangements. International prices of cereals are going up and many countries in the region will scarcely be able to afford grain. Thus fostering the production of staple food products at national level is of crucial importance.
Among
others, opportunities for organic farming are appearing, with the prospect of new
value-added markets, knowledge for local products and increased protection for
the environment. Organic farming for both export and local markets, however,
requires well-planned national policies and regulations to meet required standards;
these need further development and strengthening in the region. [Ch 2]
Increased agricultural production through using AKST,
accompanied by access to enough balanced food, is a major condition for attaining
food security. AKST that helps increase productivity and quality in CWANA includes
integrated water management, preservation and restoration of soil and soil fertility,
integrated crop management, and development and use of high-yielding species
and varieties (through conventional breeding and biotechnology) adapted to
site-specific conditions (participatory decentralized breeding). Ecological,
economic and social sustainability requirements should be an integral part of
AKST policies aimed at increasing agricultural production and ensuring food
security. [Ch 4]
Research aimed at promoting diversified farming systems
models should be intensified, taking into account farm household needs and
sustainability requirements. Pre-existing mixed farming systems, which evolved
in the region, may offer solutions to address existing challenges. Improved animal
breeding and husbandry and aquaculture can generate income for many poor
families in the CWANA region. AKST may thus reduce pressure on scarce
resources, thereby preventing resource degradation and reducing the potential
for conflict over diminishing resources. Increased livestock production must be
based on intensified mixed systems, since excessive stocking rates on
rangelands have already brought about widespread land degradation. [Ch 5]
Better use of the wealth of
locally developed and modern technologies for improving the productivity of
scarce water resources will allow for substantially higher agricultural
production and reduced water use. Integrated water resource
management aims at maximizing the benefits
of managing water and related resources in an equitable manner, for different
uses in all sectors, without compromising the sustainability of ecosystems. The
potential for capturing currently untapped water resources exists through water
harvesting, including lakes and large and small dams and groundwater recharge,
and using unconventional sources such as reclaimed, recycled, brackish and
desalinated water, and fog collection.
Managing water demand should include using water in
irrigated agriculture efficiently; but it will also include building awareness,
offering incentives and promoting the rational use of water through financial
and economic measures such as water pricing, and considering the virtual value
of water [Ch 5]. One
option for the coming decades is to characterize, maintain and protect local
knowledge systems, especially those involving water-management techniques. [Ch 3]
Numerous practices and technological options
fostering sustainable land management are available through both traditional
and modern knowledge, adapted to site-specific conditions from the field to watershed
scale. However, this information must be disseminated efficiently and a
conducive environment (including a just land-tenure system) must be in place for
these technologies to be adopted. [Ch 5]
AKST can capitalize on CWANA’s rich biodiversity and
counteract the threats that industrialized agriculture poses to it. Given the
global changes occurring, particularly climate change, biodiversity may gain
importance in crop and livestock breeding. Furthermore, markets capitalizing on
biodiversity as a source of food, herbal remedies and income are gradually
emerging. Some of the practices that may conserve or restore biodiversity
include ecoagriculture, agroforestry, biodiverse protected areas and landscape
elements, and adequate land-use planning including creating and maintaining
protected areas. Gene banks should be established or strengthened. They can capitalize
on biodiversity by using genes from wild relatives of crop species and neglected landraces while at the same time
they function to conserve that same biodiversity. The National Biodiversity
Strategy and Action Plans developed through the Convention on Biological
Diversity are intended to serve that purpose—to both conserve biodiversity and
promote its sustainable use. [Ch 5]
As an ecologically and economically vulnerable
region, CWANA is particularly subject to the effects of climate change. Informed
use of AKST will help mitigate and adapt to its effects. Better agronomic
practices, conservation agriculture, cultivation methods that consume less
water, and improved rangeland management as well as improved feeding of
ruminants and manure management will substantially reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and possibly increase carbon sequestration in CWANA. Capacity
development may be required to successfully face the challenges ahead and may
also help in gaining benefits from the flexible mechanisms included in the
Kyoto Protocol (e.g. the Clean Development Mechanism). [Ch 5]
Research related to climate change adaptation will
need to focus particularly on drought-resistant crops and animal breeds, integrated
pest and disease management (resistance, forecasting and modeling), and the
introduction of adapted crops and varieties. Erosion control, floodwater
management and ways to cope with saltwater intrusion will probably have to
receive additional attention, and efficient management of scarce water will
become even more important. [Ch 5]
Comprehensive and proactive risk management policies are urgently needed in the region. These policies include establishing early warning systems, developing crop insurance schemes, improving investment in infrastructure for water management and agricultural extension, implementing policies that protect human health and the environment and that discourage cultivation of marginal land, reinforcing marketing systems, and promoting farmers’ organizations. [Ch 2]
The improvement of market organization and
infrastructure in CWANA countries will enable stakeholders in agricultural
value chains to capitalize on increased agricultural production. Producers,
processors and traders need access to credits, markets (e.g. by closing the gap
between rural areas and urban centers) and reliable market information,
particularly in view of more diversified and market-oriented production.
Appropriate technologies and infrastructure are required for value chains to
function well. Adapted processing techniques and facilities at different levels
may substantially reduce postharvest losses. Agribusiness can be developed to provide
additional income along the value chain, particularly if diversified production
focuses on non-staples targeted at newly emerging market opportunities (e.g.
organic products, supermarkets). Vertical integration and professional value-chain
management are required to ensure good quality and safety management along the
chain and compliance with newly emerging standards. [Ch 5]
A self-reliant research policy is required to strengthen domestic AKST capacity in CWANA countries that are deficient in local expertise in formulating policy, developing their institutions and managing research [Ch 5]. Stringent intellectual property regimes give monopoly rent to the countries that have access to capital, knowledge and information, to the disadvantage of the developing countries like those in CWANA.
Links and collaboration among education, capacity
building, research and extension institutions and farmers as well as
interaction with the private sector may make AKST more efficient and effective.
AKST monitoring and evaluation systems allow for continuity of priority setting
and sound local, national and international strategy development. [Ch 5]
Information and communication technology (ICT) will to a great extent enable CWANA to take advantage of the wealth of information and knowledge available from AKST. ICT infrastructural development and Internet connectivity will improve the sharing, exchange and dissemination of information and knowledge. In additi